History of Television in India

The first television transmission in India started with the experimental telecast on 15th September 1959 in Delhi. A single transmitter and a makeshift studio were the only equipment used for this purpose. The regular daily transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio. The television service was extended to Bombay and Amritsar in 1972. It was later extended to seven more Indian cities in 1975. Television services were separated from radio in 1976. National telecasts were started in 1982. Color television sets and small screen programs were launched in the Indian market in the same year. At that time there was only one national channel Doordarshan which was owned and run by the central government.

The Ramayana and Mahabharata were the first major television series produced. Due to overwhelming interest of the people the government opened up another channel DD 2 which was later renamed DD Metro. Both channels were broadcast terrestrially. During the mid-eighties Doordarshan introduced a number entertainment programs which included music, arts and soap operas. The first Indian television serial was Hum Log in 1984. Waglekiduniya(1988), Buniyad(1986) were some of the popular serials of that time. Mythological serials like Ramayan, Mahabharat, Chandrakantha and Sword of Tipu sultan gained more audience for Doordharshan. Doordharshan also telecasted Hindi film songs programmes like Chithrahaar, Super hit Muqabla and Rangoli. VikramBetal, Malgudi days, Tenali Rama were some of the shows for children. Doordarshan includes regional language satellite channels, state networks, international channel and all India channels like DD National, DD News, DD Sports, DD Gyandarshan, DD Bharati, Loksabha Channel and DD Urdu.

PrasarBharathi

PrasarBharati is a self-governing body formed by an act of parliament. It comprises of Doordharshan television network and All India radio and is the largest public broadcaster of India. The act which grants autonomy for PrasarBharathi was passed in 1990, and it was enacted on 15th September 1997.

Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)

SITE is a landmark experiment in the Indian television history which was a community television programme. Community television is a type of system which transmits television programmes exclusively for a selected community of people. It was conducted between August 1975 and July 1976. Under this programme villages were given educational programmes through television sets using ATS-6 satellite. Six Indian states were given this privilege in the beginning. The telecasts happened twice a day, in the morning and evening. Other than agricultural information, health and family planning were the other important topics dealt with in these programmes. Entertainment was also included in these telecasts in the form of dance, music, drama, folk and rural art forms.

Gyan Darshan is a satellite based TV channel devoted to educational and developmental needs of the society. It offers distance education through Virtual Class Room mode and interactive learning.

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History of Television Broadcasting

The first experiments with television broadcasting were conducted in the 1920's and 1930's in Great Britain and the United States. The British Broadcasting Corporation or BBC started the world’s first television broadcast in 1936. A number of television stations were launched after the First World War in the United States. They were ABC, NBC and CBS. By the early 1950's television programs could be received throughout the United States. By 1960 television became widespread all over the world.

The first television sets were black and white. Black and white televisions functioned on a monochrome color platform, where the images were displayed in grey scale. This technology was upgraded by broadcasting three monochrome images, one of each in three colors of red, green and blue i.e., R G B. When displayed together they produced a full color image on the screen. These types of televisions were later called color television. It was introduced in the early 1950's. During the 50's and 60's the demand for TV sets increased all over the world. The big commercial stations held the monopoly of television broadcasting during that time. This monopoly was broken in the 80's with the rise of cable TV and satellite television. By the mid-1980's there were a variety of satellite and cable services throughout the world. In the 1980’s CNN or the Cable News Network started a new age in the history of television broadcasting. It was the first all-news TV channel in the world. CNN reached the height of its popularity during the Gulf War as the only TV station that was in Iraq covering the Gulf War.

Television stations started giving more emphasis on entertainment programs during the end of 1990's. The reality shows like ‘Who Wants To Be a Millionaire’, ‘Survivor’, ‘Big Brother’, etc., became an immediate success during this time. Versions of these shows are being shown in many countries all over the world.

Reality shows based on dancing and singing also gained popularity over the public during this period.

In the beginning of 21st century new innovations flooded in television manufacturing. One of them is the digital television. In Digital television or D T V the transmission of audio and video is by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, which is entirely different from signals used by analog television sets. The advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart television. Smart television sets are the product of hybrid or convergent technology. It is a combination of television broadcasting and internet. Smart television requires integrated set-top boxes for internet and other facilities. The advent of technology also improved many inventions like 3 D television and made it easily accessible for the public.

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Terminology/ Glossary - Public Relations

General terms used in Public Relations

1. B2B – Public relation marketing communication dedicated to providing information resources between businesses includes professional services, training, human resources and office supplies.
2. B2C – As B2B, But between businesses and the consumer.
3. Community relations – Corporate social outreach programmes designed to build relations and foster understanding of the role of the business to neighbours in the local community.
4. Consultancy – Externally hired public relation services, either an individual consultant or a public relation consultancy.
5. Corporate communications – Public relations for a corporation integrated as part of the company’s strategic objectives.
6. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) – CSR makes companies responsible for their use of resources, both environmentally and socially. The role of public relations in CSR strategies is to communicate effectively to build corporate accountability and transparency.
7. Crisis Management – Having a plan in place that can be effectively auctioned when something goes wrong for an organisation.
8. E-PR/Online PR – Communicating over the web and using new technology to effectively communicate with stakeholders.
9. Evaluation – Measuring the impact of a public relation campaign.
10. In-House – Staff within a company or organisation responsible for public relation function.
11. Internal Communications – Organisational use of process communication to help achieve corporate objectives includes employee and stakeholder communications.
12. Media Relations – Dealing with and building up good working relationships with Journalists from the broadcast and print media.
13. Press kit – A branded pack handed out to the media by an organisation. It normally contains background materials, photographs, illustration and news releases.
14. Press office – A press office handles all media inquiries and putout all company messages, or press releases – to the media on the behalf of the organisation.
15. Proposal – Document outlining a proposed PR campaign to an existing or potential client.
16. Publics – These are audiences that are important to the organisation. They include customers – existing and potential; employees and management; investors; media; government; suppliers; opinion formers.
17. Public affairs – The process of communicating an organisation’s point of view on issues or causes to political audiences.
18. Reach – the reach of a PR campaign is the total number of people within your target audience that may see your message, Often referred to as coverage.
19. Research – Finding out background information about a company, product or person to assist with a public relations campaign.
20. ROI – Return on investment. A measure of budget spent to a campaign, versus the income generated through the activity.
21. Viral campaigning – A communications campaign which is designed to exploit the potential of the internet to spread messages rapidly. The audience is encouraged to pass a message on to all their email contact.

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Terminology/ Glossary - Advertising

General terms used in Advertising

1. Ad Space – This is the space reserved for ads.
2. Advertising Manager – The person who oversees the sales representatives who sell space to advertisers, and ensures that ads are in the appropriate section.
3. Caption – Copy which accompanies a photograph or graphic.
4. Classified ads – Short, direct text ads which clearly indicate what is being advertised, the price, where, and how the advertiser can be contacted.
5. Client – The people who pay you money to work for them.
6. Commercial – An advertisement that is presented on television, radio, or film.
7. Consumer – People who buy your goods and services.
8. Display ads – Ads that include a visual image to advertise a product or service.
9. Coverage – In advertising, ‘cover’ refers to the number / percentage of people within a target audience who see or hear your advertisement.
10. CRM – Customer Relationship Management is a strategy / software that enable a company to both organize and optimize its customer relations.
11. Design – The most successful design is all about style and content working in perfect harmony.
12. Door-to-Door Ads – Street-by-street delivery of advertising material through daily newspapers or letter boxes.
13. Incentive – Free gift offered to consumers to encourage purchase / response.
14. Networking – Meeting with fellow business types and clients for business advantage.
15. Peak – the time of day when the audiences are highest – also called prime time.
16. Sales promotion – Promotional idea used to increase sales of a product.
17. Special Build – Outdoor advertising site specially constructed for a particular campaign.
18. Target Audience – The people/ group/ type of person you are aiming your campaign at, the people you want to buy your product, the people you are talking to.
19. Viral Marketing – Viral Marketing or Viral Advertising are term referring to marketing techniques that use – pre-existing social networks to produce increases in brand awareness or to achieve other marketing objectives.

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Terminology/ Glossary - New Media

General terms used in New Media

1. ACAP – Automated Content Access Protocol, a platform that would allow search engine to recognize the terms and conditions of specific websites.
2. Adobe InDesign – Desktop publishing programme, now being used more widely in place of QuarkXPress.
3. Ad Impression – Term used to describe the number of times an advertisement is seen.
4. ADSL – Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line; high bandwidth web connection often just called broadband.
5. Advertorial – An advertisement in the form of a complementary editorial piece,Usuallylabelled as an advert.
6. AM Mark – The symbol used for denoting the end of a feature story in a periodical.
7. Android – Usually used in the context of Android phone, Android is a free and open source operating system developed by Google that powers a variety of mobile phones from different manufactures and carriers.
8. App – Short for application, a programme that runs inside another service.
9. Band width – The amount of data that can be transferred through an internet connection.
10. Blind Interview – An interview with an unnamed source.
11. Blogger – A person who writes a blog.
12. Cache – The page refers to a space where web pages visited by the user are stored on the computer. A copy of document retrieved by the user is stored in cache.
13. Campaign – The various stages of an advertising project from beginning to the end.
14. Cascading style sheet (CSS) – Technique used for designing web pages,one file that defines the style for a whole site.
15. Content Management System (CMS) – A programme for creating, editing and publishing content such as text, images, audio files and videos on websites.
16. Cookie – a Message from a web server computer sent to and stored by the user’s browser on his computer. The main use of cookies is to provide customized web pages according to a profile of the user’s interest.
17. Copyright - The legal right to control the use of literary, musical, dramatic or artistic work more specifically by making or using copies of that work.
18. Download – To copy something from a primary source to a more peripheral one, such as, saving something found on the web to a floppy disk or to a file on the user’s local hard drive.
19. Favourites – In the internet explorer browser, a means to get back to a URL, similar to bookmarks in Mozilla Firefox and Netscape.
20. FTP – File transfer protocol is a System of rapidly transferring entire files from one computer to another, intact for viewing or other purposes.
21. Host – A computer that provides web documents to clients or users.
22. HTML – Hypertext Mark-up Language is A standardized language of computer code, embedded in ‘source’ documents behind all web documents containing the textual contents, images, links to other documents and formatting instructions f o r display on the screen.
23. Address or IP Number – Internet protocol address or number is A unique number consisting of four parts separated by dots (e.g.:- 123.456.789.09). Every machine connected to the internet has a unique IP Address.
24. ISP – Internet Service Provider – A company that sells internet connections via modem (e.g.: - VSNL, BSNL, Satyam).
25. JavaScript – A simple programming language developed by Netscape to enable greater interactivity in web pages. It shares some characteristics with java but is independent of it. It interacts with HTML, enabling dynamic content and motion.
26. Server, web server – A computer running the software, assigned an IP address and connected to the internet so that it can provide documents via the web. It is also called host computer.
27. TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.The collection of protocols that defines the internet. Originally designed for the UNIX operating system, TCP / IP software is now available for every major kind of computer operating system. To be truly on the internet, a computer must have TCP / IP software.
28. Tele-net – Internet service allowing one computer to log onto another, connecting it as if it were not remote.
29. URL – Uniform Research Locator is the unique address of any web document, found in the address field of the browser.

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Terminology/ Glossary - Television

General terms used in Television

1. Acoustics – The science of the transmission of sound waves.
2. A/D Conversion (ADC) – Converting an analogue signal into a digital signal.
3. Amplitude – Maximum height of a wave form or signal.
4. Analogue signal – A varying voltage signal.
5. Archive – An archive is a term for storage. It refers to the following:• Storage of master material under controlled conditions.• Long term storage of material on an offline storage medium.• Archive copy is a master copy intended solely for storage and not to be used in distribution. 
6. Average audience – The average number of people who tuned into the given time selected and expressed in thousands or as a percentage (also known as a rating) of the total potential audience of the demographic selected.
7. ATR – Audio Tape Recorder, a method of recording sound by electromagnetic pulses on a sensitized plastic strip.
8. Backlight – A lamp used to separate subject from the background by rim lighting the subject from upstage.
9. Balance – The relative level between sound sources or light sources.
10. BBC – British Broadcasting Corporation, the main public service broadcaster in the United Kingdom, founded as the British Broadcasting Company in 1922.
11. Brightness - Brightness is a subjective effect; it is how bright we see in an object.
12. Camera angle – The position of the camera relative to the main subject in the shot.
13. Chroma Key – An electronic process for inserting an artiste (foreground) into a background picture; also known as Colour Separation Overlay.
14. Colour temperature - Colour characteristics of light.10 
15. Condenser – A type of microphone using charged plates to transfer sound pressure changes into audio levels.
16. Cutaway – Cutting away from the main subject or master shot to a related shot.
17. DAT – Digital audio tape.
18. Depth of field – The zone of acceptable focus in the field of view.
19. Display mode – Selecting particular information about the camera to be displayed in the viewfinder.
20. ENG – Electronic News Gathering. It describes the single camera video recording of news events.
21. F-number – A method of indicating how much light is being allowed to pass through the aperture of the lens.
22. Field – On top to bottom scanning of an image.
23. IPTV – Internet protocol television is a system through which television services are delivered. Here an Internet protocol suite is used to transmit information via LAN or internet.
24. ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network is a system that allows the transfer of audio or other data via a telephone line.
25. Key light – The main source of light illuminating the subject.
26. Live – The transmission of an event as it takes place.
27. Low angle – A lens height below eye height.
28. Monochrome – Reproduction of a single colour such as a black and white image.
29. OB – Abbreviation for outside broadcast,usually a multi camera production from a non-studio venue using a mobile control room.
30. Phase – A time delay between two signals.
31. Piece to camera – A piece to camera is the television and film term used for when a presenter or a character speaks directly to the viewing audience through the camera. 
32. Production Control Room – Production area on outside broadcasts, or adjacent to studios used by production staff, lighting and audio.
33. Saturation – A measure of the purity of a colour.
34. Voice-over – A commentary mixed with effects or music as part of a sound track.
35. VTR – Video tape recorder.
36. Zoom lens – A variable focal length lens achieved by internally moving elements of the lens.

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Terminology/ Glossary - Radio

General terms used in Radio

1. Air check – it is the tape of a live broadcast.
2. AM – Amplitude Modulation, method of signal transmission using Standard Broadcast band with frequencies between 535 and 1605(1705) kHz.
3. Announcement – Commercial (spot) or public service message of varying length.
4. Automation – Equipment system designed to play pre-packaged programming.
5. Blend – Merging of complementary sound elements.
6. Bridge – Sound used between programme elements.
7. Commercial – Paid advertising announcement
8. Console – Audio mixer consisting of inputs, outputs, toggles, meters, and pots board.
9. Cross fade – fade out of one element while simultaneously introducing another.
10. Cue – Signal for the start of action; prepare element for airing.
11. Demographics – Audience statistical data.
12. Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) – Powerful communications satellite that beam programming to receiving dishes at earth stations.
13. Fade – To slowly lower or raise volume level.
14. Flight – Advertising air schedule.
15. Format – Type of programming a station offers.
16. Frequency – Number of cycles-per-second of a line wave.
17. Headphones – Speakers mounted on ears; headsets, cans.
18. Hertz (Hz) – It is unit of electromagnetic frequency.
19. Jingles – musical commercial or promo.
20. Level – Amount of volume unit, audio measurement.
21. Live copy – Material read over air; not pre-recorded.
22. Master – Original recording.
23. Narrow casting – Directed Programming; targeting specific audience demographic.
24. Play back – Reproduction or recorded sound.
25. Signature – Theme, logo, jingle, ID
26. Spots – commercials, paid announcements.
27. Transmit – To broadcast

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Terminology/ Glossary - Print Media

General terms used in Print Media:

1. ABC (Audit Bureau of Circulation) – Source of authoritative figures for newspaper’s net sale over specified periods
2. Ad - Advertisements
3. Advertising - The activity or profession producing information for promoting the sale of a product or service.
4. Advertorial – An advertisement section in a periodical that looks like an article or a feature.
5. Advocacy journalism - A type of journalism in which journalists openly and intentionally takes sides on issues and expresses their opinions in reporting.
6. Alignment – Placement of text relative to the margin.
7. Angle – Aspects or point of approach in a news story.
8. Banner – A large headline that stretches across the top of the page of a newspaper
9. Beat - A specialist area of journalism that a reporter regularly covers, such as police or health. See also round.
10. Blurb – Brief information about the writer.
11. Bridge – Proof reader’s mark showing that word or characters are to be joined together.
12. Bucket – Rules below and on both sides of type matter.
13. By-line – The writer’s name, printed at the beginning or end of an article.
14. Caption - Short pieces of text placed below or beside pictures to describe them and identify the photographers and/or owners, also called a cutline.
15. Circulation - Number of copies sold by newspapers and magazines.
16. Classified Ads – small newspaper advertisements usually paid for by individuals or small businesses and grouped under different classifications.
17. Colour - Extra details in a story which help the reader or listener get a fuller picture of what has happened or what a person is like.
18. Column - A regular feature often on a specific topic, written by a person known as a columnist.
19. Contacts book - A book which lists people a journalist knows may be useful, together with their telephone numbers, email addresses, fax numbers, addresses, or whatever other information is needed to contact them.
20. Copyright - The legal right to control the use of a literary, musical, dramatic or artistic work, more specifically by making or using copies of that work.
21. Copy taster - A senior sub-editor who looks at incoming copy and decides what will be used.
22. Cover line (or cover line) –It is a caption on a magazine cover.
23. Cover story - The most important story featured on the front cover of a magazine, often by an illustration.
24. Credit line –It is the text next to or following a story or picture acknowledging its source.
25. Crop –It means to cut unwanted portions from a photograph for publication.
26. Cub - Old-fashioned term for a trainee journalist, also known as a rookie.
27. Daily – A morning newspaper.
28. Dateline – Place and date of origin of newspaper story.
29. Deadline - The time the editor or producer sets by which the reporter must submit a finished story.
30. Deck – The number of rows in a headline.
31. Draft - The first version of a story before submission to an editor.
32. Double column – Across two columns; measure is not simply twice single – column, but also includes the space between columns.
33. Dummy – Mock-up of newspaper for design experiments and rearrangements.
34. Ears / Ear panel - Space at the top of the front page on each side of the newspaper’s name where ads, weather news, index to pages or announcement of special features appears.
35. Edition - A newspaper or magazine printed in a single run of the presses. It may be changed for different purposes, e.g. country edition, city edition, final edition etc.
36. Editorial page – A page where the newspaper or magazine’s editorial is printed, also called opinion page.
37. Exclusive – A story printed by only one paper; a scoop
38. Filler – Short item used to fill out a column.
39. Flag – Title plate on the first page of a newspaper.
40. Folio – Page or page number.
41. Follow – up – A story which is written to report new or more detailed information on a story which has already been published.
42. Font - A set of characters - letters, numbers and punctuation marks - of a single size and style of a particular typeface.
43. Format – The size and shape of a page, newspaper or book.
44. Fourth Estate – The press positioning it as a fourth branch of democracy.
45. Ghost writer – Ghost writer is the author of stories that bear someone else’s name.
46. Gutter - A vertical margin of white space where two pages or columns meet.
47. Hammer – One or two word heading set flesh left over main heading of about half the size.
48. Hand-out – Copy supplied by speaker or publicity agent.
49. Hard Copy – Something printed on paper
50. Hard News – Immediate and factual accounts of important events or development.
51. Imprint – Name and address of the publisher.
52. In depth – A news story that is comprehensive, thorough and detailed.
53. Intro – introduction or an opening paragraph of a story.
54. Jargon – Any technical or bureaucratic words that would not be used in everyday language.
55. Jump – It means to continue a story from one page to another.
56. Kicker – Small headline usually underscored, placed above and to left of main headline, also called eyebrow, teaser, over line.
57. Logo Type – Nameplate for a newspaper.
58. Masthead – nameplate of the newspaper.
59. Morgue – Newspaper library.
60. News Hole – Total space in a newspaper after the advertisement have been placed.
61. Obit – obituary, biography of a person who has died.
62. Op-ed – page opposite the editorial page used for letters to the editor, articles by columnists etc.
63. Periodicals - A magazine or newspaper published at regular intervals
64. Photo credit – A photographer’s by-line
65. Plagiarism – passing off as one’s own the ideas and words of another.
66. Plate - A plate contains the image of several pages, in multiple of 4, and is installed on to the press.
67. Pre-date – An edition issued before it’s announced date of publication.
68. Release – A press note or a hand-out to ‘okay’ for publication.
69. Rewrite – It means to write a story again, rather than simply edit the copy.
70. Schedule – There is the time schedule, or sheet, listing deadlines for pages.
71. Scoop – A story or picture of some importance nobody else has; an exclusive.
72. Tabloid newspaper –It is a small, compact format newspaper, usually less than 43 cm (17 inches) long, Also used to describe a newspaper style that uses short, simply-written stories and headlines with lots of pictures to illustrate more sensational content. Compare with broadsheet.
73. Yellow Journalism - An old-fashioned US term for sensational journalism.

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Audio Editing and Mixing for Radio

Audio editing is the process of assembling different audio files in a meaningful order. This also includes fine tuning the audio by removing noise from the audio, increasing volume, removing exceeded silence, etc. Various kinds of software are available for audio editing. Audio editing software is software which allows editing and generating of audio data. The audio file will present a graphical representation of the audio waves. This makes the editing more easily. These Wave Editors are digital audio editors and there are many sources of software available to perform this function. Most can edit music, apply effects and filters, adjust stereo channels etc.

Another kind of audio editor is DAW or digital audio workstation. A digital audio workstation is an electric or electronic device, or computer software application for recording, editing and producing audio files. DAWs come in a wide variety of configurations from a single software programme on a laptop, to an integrated unit of various devices and software. Modern DAWs have a central interface that allows the user to alter and mix multiple recordings and tracks into a final produced piece. They are used widely in audio editing, commonly in complex recording and editing process.

Audio Mixer

An audio mixer or a mixing console is an electronic device for combining and changing the level, of audio signals. A mixer can mix analog or digital signals, depending on the type of mixer. The modified signals are combined to produce the output signals.

Audio mixers are used in many applications, including recording studios, public address systems, broadcasting, television, and film post-production.  

Audio Formats

An audio format is a medium for storing sound and music. Some of the commonly used audio formats are:

• AVI

.avi - AVI (Audio Video Interleave)

• WMV

.wma - WMV (Windows Media Audio)

• MIDI

.mid, .midi - MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) [It is a format for electronic music devices like synthesizers and PC sound cards.]

• MP3

.mp3 - MP3

• RealAudio

.rm, .ram - RealAudio

• WAV

.wav - WAVE 

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Types of Radio Transmission

First of all, in order to transmit radio waves, a transmitter and receiver are needed. A radio wave acts as the carrier of the information through encoded waves or a process called modulation. Modulation is the variation of a property of an electromagnetic wave or signal, such as its amplitude, frequency, or phase.

The two main types of radio transmission are amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). The older broadcasting method and most popular method, frequency modulation (FM) minimizes noise and provides greater reliability. Both AM and FM process sounds into patterns, that are always varying, of electrical signals. They closely resemble sound waves. In an AM transmission the carrier wave has a constant frequency, but the strength of the wave varies. The FM transmitter is just the opposite; the wave has constant amplitude but a varying frequency.

Usually the radio is used in the transmission of sound; such as voices and music. The sound is converted into electrical signals by a microphone. Then the signals are amplified, and transmitted. Once the carrier is amplified it can be applied to an antenna. The antenna converts the electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and sends them out or they can also be received. The receiving antennas change it back to the form of electrical signals, and then feed it to another receiver.

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Organisational Structure of a Radio Station

The head of a radio station is the general manager. In a radio station there are basically four distinct departments. They are:

Administrative Department

The overall administration and management of the station is taken care by this department. The department takes care of the internal and external affairs. It is further divided into accounting, business, public relations, advertising, human resource, etc. This department provides all the support and resources that is required for the functioning of the station.

Programming Department

This department is responsible for broadcasting of radio programmes and other media related activities. Programme director is in charge of this department. Main duties of this department are programme planning, research and production. The final authorisation for transmission of the programme is issued by the programme director. Under the programme director there are music directors, production di-rectors and production executives, who are responsible for the production and supervision of the segment allotted to them. There are also reporters, radio jockeys, instrumentalists and singers who work under this department.

Engineering Department

The engineering department is headed and supervised by the chief engineer. Under the chief engineer there will be a number of assistant engineers. The technical aspects of the station are handled by this department. Engineering department plays a major role in the transmission of radio programmes.

Sales Department

This department monitors the sales and promotion activities and ensures financial flow to the station. The organisation of this department depends upon the business model followed by the station. In commercial radio stations, sales department consists of account executives, advertisement managers, sales representatives, etc.

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What is the Structure of a Radio Station

The physical structure of a radio station consists of radio studio, control room, administration department and the transmitter.

• Radio Studio

A radio studio is different from a video production studio. The entire studio is strictly dedicated to audio. Radio studio is a closed sound proof room where voice can be recorded without any interference. A studio has a single sound proof door and no windows. There is a small enclosed place before the studio hall. This empty space is called a sound lock, which prevents unnecessary outside sounds from entering the studio. A studio is so designed without any interference to ensure that outside noises are not recorded and the speaker’s voice is heard clearly. The ceiling and walls of the studio hall will be perforated with woollen panels. These are also called acoustic panels. A studio floor consists of at least three microphones. There will at least be two studios in a station. The second studio may be smaller in size with the same type of doors, walls and ceilings. This is where the announcer does the announcements. This may be called an announcer’s booth or a transmission studio.

• Control Room

Control room is the most important technical area of a radio station. It is situated next to a recording studio hall. The control room operators can see and give signals to the announcer in the studio through a glass window that is attached to the wall. Whatever is spoken in the studio or played from a CD player or computer is sent to this control room. All the programmes are sent from here to the transmitter. A control room is connected with all the other segments of broadcast.

The microphones in the studio hall are connected to the devices in control room. So whatever that is captured by the microphones will be directly sent to control room. From here they are sent to the transmitter for its onward transmission to the listeners. A lot of changes take place when one speaks through a microphone. In the control room, technical people control the whole process and immediately send these waves to the transmitter. The transmitter sends these sound waves to the listeners’ radio sets which convert them into sounds.

• Transmitter

A transmitter is the equipment through which we receive the radio broadcast on our sets. This is big equipment in comparison to other equipment installed in the studio or control room. The strength and type of the transmitter determines the coverage area of the broadcast. There are two types of transmitters; namely Low Power Transmitter (LPT) and High Power Transmitter (HPT). There is also another classification as short wave and medium wave radio broadcast transmitters. Transmitters are generally located outside the city boundaries. The transmitters are of different capacities such as 1 KW to 100 KW, 200KW or 250 KW or above. Their locations are decided according to their capacity. A 1 KW transmitter is normally installed in the vicinity of the studio/control room whereas the high power transmitters are installed outside the city.

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Types of Radio Stations

Radio station is the place where the production and transmission of radio programmes are conducted. There are different types of radio stations:

1. Commercial stations

These types of radio stations functions with profit motive. Revenue production is mainly through radio advertisements where the advertisers pay for time.

2. Non – commercial stations

They are normally funded by the government. They do not accept financial support from outside in the form of advertisements or any other source.

3. AM and FM Stations

Types of waves used for transmission of radio messages are different. AM (amplitude modulation) and FM (frequency modulation) are two different kinds of radio waves used for transmission. Radio stations are also categorized on the basis of mode of transmission.

4. Community Radio Stations

This type of radio stations focus on a specific area or community. The broadcasting will be done for audience of a small area. The programmes will include matters of local interest.

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Radio Broadcasting

Broadcasting is the simultaneous transmission of the same message to multiple recipients. Radio broadcasting is a one-way wireless transmission of sound waves intended to reach a wide audience. Radio broadcasting is done through radio stations. Radio broadcasting also can be done via cable radio, satellite radio, and internet radio via streaming media on the Internet. The radio signals can be analog or digital.

There are several types of radio broadcasting. Main types of radio broadcasting are, AM and FM transmissions. Community radio, satellite radio, campus radio, commercial and non-commercial broadcasting are some other types of broadcasting. AM refers to amplitude modulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the signal to be transmitted. One of the advantages of AM is that its signal can be detected with simple equipment. FM refers to frequency modulation. FM stations are much more popular since higher sound fidelity and stereo broadcasting became common in this format. Satellite radio broadcasters are slowly emerging, but the enormous entry costs of space-based satellite transmitters, and restrictions on available radio spectrum licenses has restricted growth of this market.

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Types of Sound Recording in Radio

There are classifications of audio recording based on the place or time of recording. They are:

Outdoor

There are certain situations where audio recording is done outside the studio. This is during the production of a vox pop, where the reporter gathers sound bites from random people on the street, or during a news reporting session. Quality of this audio cannot be pre-determined, as there are plenty of chances for noise interferences. To overcome these problems recording artists use special kind of microphones and equipment while recording outside. The noise can be corrected later in an audio studio. Boom mikes and lapels mikes are widely used for outdoor recording.

Indoor

Indoor recording is mainly used during interviews. Indoor recording may also faces problems like outdoor recording, as there are chances of noise interferences. Directional microphones are used for this purpose. The recording artist keeps the microphone closer to the subject or person to get better quality of audio. Most of the microphones are having in built noise reduction.

Live

Live recording is used for recording live music events, concerts and other programmes. The live recording process has many difficulties, like capturing sound of each and every device used. A sound mixer is used to combine the sound recorded by all the microphones.

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Sound Recording Techniques in Radio

Sound is a series of pressure waves created by vibration. Every living and non-living things makes sound. Sound travels through the substances in the form of waves. The vibration created by these waves in the eardrum helps a person to hear sound. Sound recording is an electrical or mechanical inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. There are two main classification of sound recording technology, namely analog recording and digital recording.

Analog Recording

Analog sound waves are also called acoustic sound waves. Analog recording is the oldest form of recording sound. Analog recording is done by a small microphone. The diaphragm inside the microphone can detect changes in atmospheric pressure, i.e., the movement of analog sound waves and record them on a medium such as a phonograph. Another type of analog recording is magnetic tape recording. A magnetic tape is a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it. In this type of recording the sound waves vibrate the microphone diaphragm and are converted into a varying electric signal, which is then recorded or encrypted on a magnetic tape using an electromagnetic device. Electronically generated sound waves may also be recorded directly from devices such as an electric guitar pickup or a synthesizer, without the use of acoustics in the recording process.

Digital Recording

Digital recording is commonly used for audio recording these days. The digital recording process is simpler and easy to work with, comparing to analog. Digital recording converts the analog sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of digitisation. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recordings are considered higher quality than analog recordings. The digital format can prevent much loss of quality comparing to the analog recording, where noise interferences in microphone are common. Digital audio is recorded and saved in digital medium, so mechanical deterioration or damage to the storage medium is less. The common me-dium for saving digitally recorded sound is audio CD. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback.

Sound Reproduction

In analog sound reproduction, the recorded elect romagnetic waves are converted into acoustic waves using an amplifier and a loudspeaker diaphragm. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is applied to a loudspeaker or earphones. Digitally recorded sound can also be played on the internet through digital audio transmission.

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Elements of Radio Production - Sound effects, Music, Silence, Human Voice

Sound effects

Sound effects are sounds made by living or non-living things which are neither word nor music. Sound effects help the listener to imagine and give meaning and sense of location. It adds realism to the programme and is an essential component of radio production. Sound effects can be created in the studio using computer and other musical instruments. In most cases the recording artists records them from real situations and store them for further use. For example, a crowded bus, noisy street, forest, etc. These atmospheric sounds are called ambience. Sound effects are classified into, recorded sound effects and spot effects. Spot effects are randomly recorded natural sounds. Sound effects can also be created artificially using software. In some cases different objects wooden boards, cellophane papers are used to create sound effects like door closing, fire raging, etc.

Music

Music is an essential component of the radio. The purpose of playing music in a radio programme is to generate the appropriate atmosphere and emotions for the situation. Music easily works on human emotions. The listener can easily understand the feelings of the characters or the situation that is going on in the programme. It can create the sense of happiness, sadness, fear, excitement, etc., in the minds of the audience. Musical programmes are independent programmes on radio. Music is also used for signature tunes that are played in the beginning and end of programme, and theme music of the radio station or the programmes.

Silence

Silence is a very powerful and useful element in a radio production. It can give emphasis for a radio message. Silence is used only for a very small duration in a radio programme. It can evoke the tension and deep feelings in the audience. It is mainly used to create a gap during the narrations.

Human Voice

Human voice is basic element of communication for a radio. It is a crucial element in radio. It can provoke different reactions on the listener depending on its characteristics. It is used widely in radio programmes. The presenters or announcers are major source of human voice. Presenter use voice modulations to give different emotions for the presentation.

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Elements of Radio Production - Microphones

A microphone is a device used to record sound. It converts sound signals or waves into electric signals. Microphones are used in telephones, public address systems, hearing aids, etc. microphones are connected to other devices to record and amplify sound. Microphones are essential part or radio production and are placed in recording studios. They amplify or increase the volume of sound. Microphones are classified on the basis of their directivity. It is the measuring point to calculate the direction of emission of the powerful waves.

Different types of microphones are:

1. Uni-directional Microphones

This type of microphone picks up sound from only one direction. The sound will be recorded properly only if the speaker speaks in front of it. For better results the speaker should keep a favourable distance from the microphone. It is used in a studio for single person recordings. It is used by the radio jockeys, announcers and news readers in a studio.

2. Bi-directional Microphones

Here, the voice is picked up from two directions. That is left and right. This type of microphones has two different streams of audio. This is commonly used in recording studios for interviews, where sound from two persons is recorded simultaneously.

3. Omni-directional Microphones

The word Omni means ‘everywhere’. An Omni- directional microphone picks up sound from every direction. These types of microphones are used when a number of voices are used in a single programme, like radio discussions and radio drama.

There are also other microphones which are classified on the basis of their size, shape and purpose. Some examples are lapels, gun mics, boom mics, cordless mics, etc.

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What is a Community Radio?

Community radio is a radio service offering a third model of radio broadcasting in addition to commercial and public broadcasting. Community stations serve geographic communities and communities of interest. 

Community radio is a social process or event in which members of the community associate together to design programmes and produce and air them, thus taking on the primary role of actors in their own destiny, whether this be for something as common as mending fences in the neighbourhood, or a community-wide campaign on how to use clean water and keep it clean, or agitation for the election of new local leaders.

The emphasis is on the ownership of democratic and development efforts by the members of the community themselves and the use of media, in this case radio, to achieve it. In every sense, this is participatory communication. It is above all a process, not a technology, not merely a means. It is the community speaking to each other and acting together for common goals.

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Difference between Writing for Print and Broadcasting

Print journalism edits the writing more so than broadcasting. Newspapers edit for accuracy. Whereas, broadcast journalism airs what is written out exactly word for word. There is little or no editing involved with broadcasting. Print journalism involves more style in the writing, and broadcast journalism is sharper with the words in order to get the message across more quickly. 

Broadcast journalism has the same concept as print where the most important information is placed at the top of the story. However, broadcast journalism doesn’t drag on with the story. It simply gets straight to the point, and it doesn’t leave the audience to question anything. Also, print journal has no control over how long it takes a reader to finish reading the story. But, a typical radio news story is 30 seconds long. Therefore, they both differ in length. 

Broadcast and print media also differ in how much an audience remembers the information that is placed before them. For example, average newspaper readers remember more of the information than average broadcast viewers and listeners do. The reason for this is that the broadcast media can be turned off whenever and forgotten.

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Stages in Radio Production

The radio broadcasting divided into three distinct stages:

• Pre – production

Brainstorming on the programme and research to gather background information materials are the two subdivisions at this stage. Idea may be generated through observation, experiment or innovation. Some programmes are produced on the basis of an audience demand while some others are on the basis of recent events like a festival or a calamity. What we prepare at this stage are an outline script which details the programme to be produced and a rundown sheet which gives a day by day and hour by hour definition of when, where and what we will be recording. What makes the pre-production stage perfect is to prepare a timeframe and manage the entire team to follow it.

• Production

Production in radio programming is basically recording the sound. It may take indoor or outdoor. They are called studio production and field production respectively. While recording sound the producer shall ensure the quality of sound, perfection of recording and reduction of noise or interruptions. Micro phones, recorder unit, headphone socket, standard batteries, recording media, power supply, headphones etc. are some of the devices we use in field recording. In studio, all these devices would be readily available.

• Post Production

The first stage in post-production is to carefully listen to the recorded sound and select the portion which the producer would like to include in the final programme. It is recommended to record as much material as possible to choose from, to make the final session easier and programme more creative. The process of selecting and listing material required for final programme is called logging. Editing is the process of arranging selected portion of the recorded sound in a logical and creative manner to form the final programme. During the editing phase, we include sound effects to the final product. Editing is performed on the basis of the final script prepared using the outline script and observation notes.

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Types of Radio Programmes

A radio format, or programming format, or programming genre refers to the overall content broadcasting over a radio station. For the better understanding of the practical aspects of radio production, one should know about the programme and its types.

1.       Radio bulletins

Among all the spoken word formats on radio, news is the most popular. In India, only All India Radio is allowed to broadcast news. Duration of news bulletins vary from 5 minute to 30 minutes. The longer news bulletins have interviews, features, reviews and comments from experts.

2.      Documentaries/features

The documentary programme is a story of something. It is generally between 15 and 60 minutes in length. The actual length is usually related to the size of the subject and the way in which it is treated. Radio documentaries are also called radio features. A radio documentary is a programme based on real sounds and real people and their views and experiences. Radio documentaries are based on facts presented in an attractive manner or dramatically. Radio documentaries are radio’s own creative format. The producer of a documentary needs to be very creative to use human voice, script, music and sound effects very effectively.

3.      News reels

It is more usual to separate comment from the news by including it in news talks and news reels. The daily news reel of fifteen or more minute’s duration is a popular form of news broadcasting. It contains eye-witness accounts, extract of speeches and reports of other events, commentaries, short talks and interviews in much the same way as a newspaper includes pictures and feature articles.

4.      Drama

A radio drama is different from the drama which is performed on a stage. A radio drama depends on dialogue, music and sound effects to help the listener imagine the characters and story.

There are three methods of radio plays.

- As completely self-contained plays of 60 minutes in length.

- As serial drama of 15 or 30 minute in length in which the action goes forward from one episode to another.

- As series drama, each broadcast generally lasting for 30 minutes and completing one whole episode of a continued story; the principal characters reappear in new situations in each new drama in the series.

      5.  Commercials

Commercials are also known as advertisements. A station which carries advertising obtains it either directly from an advertiser or indirectly through an agency representing an advertiser.

1.       Phone in programmes

In broadcasting, a phone-in or call-in is a programme format in which viewers or listeners are invited to air their live comments by telephone, usually in respect of a specific topic selected for discussion on the day of the broadcast. On radio (especially talk radio), it is common for an entire programme to be dedicated to a phone-in session.

2.      Quiz

Largely studio-based and in-expensive to produce, the quiz show is easily one of the most popular programmes for the family. It’s the sense of participation and involvement in the quiz questions that makes the programme very enjoyable.

3.      Music show

Music programme enjoy much greater popularity than talk shows, as is evident from the popularity of FM channels. We enjoy music for its rhythm, melodies and harmonies and above all for the relaxation it provides.

4.      Talk shows

Radio talks are not public speeches; rather they are chats with a friend who does not see you, but is nevertheless close and attentive to you. Radio talks should give an impression to a listener that the speaker is addressing him or her alone in an informal manner.

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